Air Pollution in India Essay Example

Air Pollution in India Paper Air pollution in India From Wisped, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Traffic congestion on inadequate road infrastructure is a daily reality of Indians urban centers. Slow speeds and idling vehicles produce, per trip, 4 to 8 times more pollutants and consume more carbon footprint fuels, than free flowing traffic. This 2008 image shows traffic congestion in Delhi. Air pollution in India is a serious issue with the major sources being followed and biomass burning, fuel adulteration, vehicle emission and traffic congestion. L India has a low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country as a hole is the third largest after China and the United States. [3] The Air (Prevention and Control Of Pollution) Act was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution and there have been some measurable improvements. However, the 201 2 Environmental Performance Index ranked India as having the poorest relative air quality out of 132 countries. 4] Contents * 1 Fuel wood and bioma ss burning * 2 Emissions standards 3 Fuel adulteration * 4 Traffic congestion * 5 Greenhouse gas emissions * 6 Recent trends in air quality * 7 Specific issues * 8 References I Fuel wood and biomass burning Cooking fuel in rural India is prepared from a wet mix of dried grass, followed pieces, hay, leaves and mostly cow/livestock dung. This mix is patted down into disc-shaped cakes, dried, and then used as fuel in stoves. When it burns, it produces smoke and numerous indoor air pollutants at concentrations 5 times higher than coal. A rural stove using biomass cakes, followed and trash as cooking fuel. Surveys suggest over 100 million households in India use such stoves (Chula) every day, 2-3 times a day. Clean burning fuels and electricity are unavailable in rural parts and small towns of India because of poor rural sways and limited energy generation infrastructure. Followed and biomass burning is the primary reason for near-permanent haze and smoke observed above rural and urban India, and in satellite pictures of the country. Followed and biomass cakes are used for cooking and general heating needs. These are burnt in cook stoves known as Chula or Chula in some parts of India. These cook stoves are present in over 100 million Indian households, and are used two to three times a day, daily. As of 2009, majority of Indians still use traditional fuels such as dried cow dung, agricultural wastes, and firewood as cooking fuel. L] This form of fuel is inefficient source of energy, its burning releases high levels of smoke, IMP O particulate matter, KNOX, SOX, PARS, polychromatic, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and other air pollutants. 5][6][7][8] Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim 300,000 to 400,000 people die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning in India because of biomass burning and use of Chula. [J Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop, unless electricity or clean burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural and urban India. India is the worlds largest consumer of followed, agricultural waste and biomass for energy purposes. We will write a custom essay sample on Air Pollution in India specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Air Pollution in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Air Pollution in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer From the most recent available nationwide study, India used 148. 7 million tones coal replacement worth of followed and biomass annually for domestic energy use. Indians national average annual per capita consumption of fuel wood, agric water and biomass cakes was 206 kilogram coal equivalent. CIO] In 201 0 terms, with Indians population increased to about 1. 2 billion, the country burns over 200 million tones of coal replacement worth of fuel wood and biomass every year to meet its energy need for cooking and there domestic use. The study found that the households consumed around 95 million tones of followed, one-third of which was logs and the rest was twigs. Twigs were mostly consumed in the villages, and logs were more popular in cities of India. [1 1] The overall contribution of followed, including sawdust and wood waste, Was about 46% of the total, the rest being agric waste and biomass dung cakes. Traditional fuel (followed, crop residue and dung cake) dominates domestic energy use in rural India and accounts for about 90% of the total. In urban areas, this traditional fuel constitutes about 4% of the total. [12] Fuel wood, agric waste and biomass cake burning releases over 1 65 million tones of combustion products into Indians indoor and outdoor air every year. To place this volume of emission in context, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States estimates that fire wood smoke contributes over 420,000 tones of fine particles throughout the United States mostly during the winter months. United States consumes about one-tenth of followed consumed by India, and mostly for fireplace and home heating purposes. EPA estimates that residential wood combustion in he USA accounts for 44 percent of total organic matter emissions and 62 percent of the PAP, which are probable human carcinogens and are of great concern to EPA The followed sourced residential wood smoke makes up over 50 percent of the wintertime particle pollution problem in California. [1 3] In 2010, the state of California had about the same number of vehicles as all of India. India burns tenfold more followed every year than the United States, the followed quality in India is different than the dry firewood of the United States, and the Indian stoves in use are less efficient thereby reducing more smoke and air pollutants per kilogram equivalent. India has less land area and less emission air space than the United States. In summary, the impact on indoor and outdoor air pollution by followed and biomass cake burning is far worse in India. A United Nations study[14] finds firewood and biomass Stoves can be made more efficient in India. Animal dung, now used in inefficient stoves, could be used to produce biogas, a cleaner fuel with higher utilization efficiency. In addition, an excellent fertilizer can be produced from the slurry from biogas plants. Switching to gaseous eels would bring the greatest gains in terms of both thermal efficiency and reduction in air pollution, but would require more investment. A combination of technologies may be the best way forward. Between 2001 and 2010, India has made progress in adding electrical power generation capacity, bringing electricity to rural areas, and reforming market to improve availability and distribution of liquefied cleaner burning fuels in urban and rural area. Over the same period, scientific data collection and analysis show improvement in Indians air quality, with some regions witnessing 30 to 65% reduction in Knox, Sox and suspended particulate matter. Even at these lower levels, the emissions are higher than those recommended by the World Health Organization. Continued progress is necessary. Scientific studies conclude biomass combustion in India is the countrys dominant source of carbonaceous aerosols, emitting 0. 25 trigram per year of black carbon into air, 0. 94 trigram per year of organic matter, and 2. 04 trigram per year of small particulates with diameter less than 2. 5 microns. Biomass burning, as domestic fuel in India, accounts for about 3 times as much black carbon air elution as all other sources combined, including vehicles and industrial sources. [15] Emissions standards Other sources of pollution in Indian cities are vehicles and emissions from industry. Until 1992, India protected its automobile industry using license raja. Many two wheel, three wheel and four wheel vehicles lacked catalytic converters. Per vehicle emissions were amongst the highest in the world. The refining of oil and supply of fuel was owned, regulated and run by the government; the fuel quality was lax. In 2005, India adopted emission standard of Brat Stage IV for vehicles, which is equivalent to Euro IV European standards for vehicle emissions. Nevertheless, the old pre-2005 vehicles, and even pre-1992 vehicles are still on Indian streets. Fuel adulteration Rubbish being burnt on a Kola street. Some Indian taxis and auto-rickshaws run on adulterated fuel blends. Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced fuels is common in South Asia, including India. [2] Some adulterants increase emissions of harmful pollutants from vehicles, worsening urban air pollution. Financial incentives arising from differential taxes are generally the primary cause of fuel adulteration. In India and other developing countries, gasoline carries a much higher tax than diesel, which in turn is taxed more than kerosene meant as a cooking fuel, while some solvents and lubricants carry little or no tax. As fuel prices rise, the public transport driver cuts costs by blending the cheaper hydrocarbon into highly taxed hydrocarbon. The blending may be as much as 20-30 percent. For a low wage driver, the adulteration can yield short term savings that are significant over the month. The consequences to long term air pollution, quality of life and effect on health are simply ignored. Also moored are the reduced life of vehicle engine and higher maintenance costs, particularly if the taxi, auto-rickshaw or truck is being rented for a daily fee. Adulterated fuel increases tailpipe emissions of hydrocarbons (HCI), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (Knox) and particulate matter (PM). Air toxin emissions ? which fall into the category of unregulated emissions ? of primary concern are benzene and polychromatic hydrocarbons (Pass), both well known carcinogens. Kerosene is more difficult to burn than gasoline; its addition results in higher levels of HCI, CO and PM emissions even from totally-equipped cars. The higher sulfur level of kerosene is another issue. The permissible level of fuel sulfur in India, in 2002, was 0. 25 percent by weight as against 0. 10 percent for gasoline. The higher levels of sulfur can deactivate the catalyst. Once the catalyst becomes deactivated, the amount of pollution from the vehicle dramatically increases. Fuel adulteration is essentially an unintended consequence of tax policies and the attempt to control fuel prices, in the name of fairness. Air pollution is the ultimate result. This problem is not unique to India, but prevalent in many developing entries including those outside of south Asia. This problem is largely absent in economies that do not regulate the ability of fuel producers to innovate or price based on market demand. Traffic congestion Traffic congestion is severe in Indians cities and towns. Traffic congestion is caused for several reasons, some of which are: increase in number of vehicles per kilometer of available road, a lack of intra-city divided-lane highways and intra-city expressways networks, lack of inter-city expressways, traffic accidents and chaos from poor enforcement of traffic laws. Traffic congestion reduces average traffic speed. At low speeds, scientific studies reveal, vehicles burn fuel inefficiently and pollute more per trip. For example, a study in the united States found that for the same trip, cars consumed more fuel and polluted more if the traffic was congested, than when traffic flowed freely. At average trip speeds between 20 to 40 kilometers per hour, the cars pollutant emission was twice as much as when the average speed was 55 to 75 kilometers per hour. At average trip speeds between 5 to 20 kilometers per hour, the cars pollutant emissions were 4 to 8 times as much as when the average speed was 55 to 70 kilometers per hour. 6] Fuel efficiencies similarly were much worse with traffic congestion. Traffic gridlock in Delhi and other India cities is extreme. [1 7] The average trip speed on many Indian city roads is less than 20 kilometers per hour; a 10 kilometer trip can take 30 minutes, or more. At such speeds, vehicles in India emit air pollutants 4 to 8 times more than they would with less traf fic congestion; Indian vehicles also consume a lot more carbon footprint fuel per trip, than they would if the traffic congestion was less. In cities like Bangor, around 50% Of children suffer from asthma. CA] Greenhouse gas emissions India was the third largest emitter of carbon dioxide in 2009 at 1. 65 Get per year, after China (6. 9 Get per year) and the United States (5. 2 Get per year). With 17 percent of world population, India contributed some 5 percent of human- sourced carbon dioxide emission; compared to Chinas 24 percent share. On per capita basis, India emitted about 1. Tons of carbon dioxide per person, in comparison to the United States 17 tons per person, and a world average of 5. 3 tons per About 65 percent of Indians carbon dioxide emissions in 2009 was from heating domestic uses and power sector. About percent of Indians emissions were from transportation (cars, trains, two wheelers, airplanes, others). Indians coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants are inefficient and offer significant potential for CA emission reduction through better technology. Compared to the average emissions from coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants in European Union (E-27) countries, Indians thermal power plants emit 50 to 120 percent more CA per kHz produced. [3] This is in significant part to inefficient thermal power plants installed in India prior to its economic fertilization in the sass. Between 1990 and 2009, Indians carbon dioxide emissions per GAP purchasing power parity basis have decreased by over 1 0 percent, a trend similar to China. Meanwhile, between 1990 and 2009, Russians carbon dioxide emissions per GAP purchasing power parity basis have increased by 40 percent. India has one of the better records in the world, of an economy that is growing efficiently on CA emissions basis. In other words, over the last 20 years, India has reduced CA emissions with each unit of GAP increase. [3] Per Copenhagen Accord, India aims to further educe emissions intensity of its growing GAP by 20 to 25 percent before 2020, with technology transfer and international cooperation. Nevertheless, it is expected, that like China, Indians absolute carbon dioxide emissions will rise in years ahead, even as International Energy Agencys Annex I countries expect their absolute CA emissions to drop. A significant source of greenhouse gas emissions from India is from black carbon, Knox, methane and other air pollutants. These pollutants are emitted in large quantities in India every day from incomplete and inefficient combustion of biomass (fuel wood, crop waste and cattle dung). A majority of Indian population lacks access to clean burning fuels, and uses biomass combustion as cooking fuel. Indians poorly managed solid wastes, inadequate sewage treatment plants, water pollution and agriculture are other sources of greenhouse gas Annas Luau has proposed that as the aerosol particles rise on the warm, connecting air, they produce more rain over northern India and the Himalayan foothill, which further warms the atmosphere and fuels a heat pump that draws yet more warm air to the region. This phenomenon, Luau believes, changes the timing and intensity of the monsoon, effectively earrings heat from the low-lying lands over the subcontinent to the atmosphere over the Tibetan Plateau, which in turn warms the high-altitude land surface and hastens glacial retreat. His modeling shows that aerosols?particularly black carbon and dust?likely cause as much of the glacial retreat in the region as greenhouse gases via this heat pump effect. [21] Recent trends in air quality Monsoons scrub Indians air, bringing its natural diversity in better view.

Structure of a Descriptive Essay

Structure of a Descriptive Essay The descriptive essay can be arranged in one of many organization patterns, and you will soon find that one style is best for your particular topic. Some effective organization patterns for a descriptive essay are spatial, which is best used when you are describing a location; chronological organization, which is best used when you are describing an event; and functional organization, which is best used when you are describing how a device or process works. Start with a Mind Dump Before you can begin writing your essay or deciding upon an organizational pattern, you should put everything you know about your subject on a piece of paper in a mind dump. In this first stage of information gathering, you should not worry about organizing your information. To start out, simply write down every item, characteristic, or feature that you can think of, allowing your thoughts to flow onto the paper. Note: A giant sticky note is a fun tool for mind dumping. Once your paper is filled with bits of information, you can use a simple numbering system to begin identifying topics and subtopics. Simply look over your items and â€Å"clump† them together in logical groups. Your groups will become major topics that you address in body paragraphs. Come Up with an Overall Impression The next step is to read over your information to come up with one major impression that you get from it all. Ponder the information for a few moments and see if you can boil it all down to one thought. Sound difficult? This list below shows three imaginary topics (in bold) followed by examples of a few thoughts that might be generated about each topic. You will see that the thoughts lead to an overall impression (in italics). 1. Your City Zoo - The animals were arranged by continents. Each area featured interesting plants and flowers from the continents. There were beautiful murals painted everywhere. Impression: the visual elements make this a more interesting zoo. Structure: Since a zoo is a place, the best structure for the city zoo essay is likely to be spatial. As a writer, you would begin with an introductory paragraph that ends with a thesis statement based on your impression. A sample thesis state would be While the animals were fascinating, the visual elements made this zoo most interesting. You could write your essay as a walking tour, visiting (describing) one area at a time.Each area would be described in your body paragraphs.You would use descriptive language to convey the striking visual elements of each area. 2. A Birthday Party - The birthday boy cried when we sang to him. He was too young to know what was happening. The cake was too sweet. The sun was hot. Impression: this party was a disaster! Structure: Since this is an event in time, the best structure would likely be chronological. Your introductory paragraph would build up to the conclusion (your impression) that this party was not a success!Each disastrous event would be described in individual body paragraphs. 3. Making a Cake from Scratch - I learned what sifting was, and it was messy. Creaming butter and sugar takes time. It’s hard to pick slippery egg shell bits out of flour. We really take box mixes for granted! Structure: The best structure would be functional. You would build up to the (surprising) complexity of making a cake from scratch.Body paragraphs would address the difficulty you encountered at each turn. End with a Conclusion Every essay requires a good conclusion to tie things up and make a tidy and complete package. In your concluding paragraph for a descriptive essay, you should summarize your main points and explain your overall impression or thesis in new words.

INTERNATIONAL LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

INTERNATIONAL LAW - Essay Example Article 51 of the UN Charter of 1945 recognizes that members of the UN have â€Å"inherent rights† to â€Å"individual and collective defence† during an armed attack but measures taken by member nations in the exercise of self-defence are required to be immediately reported to the UN Security Council. At the same time, Article 51 of the UN Charter clearly says that the measure taken by member states of the United Nations will not in any way affect the â€Å"authority and responsibility† of the UN Security Council provided for under the UN Charter to take action to maintain or restore international peace and security. Article 51 of the UN Charter, however, bestow authority to the UN Security Council to take action for maintaining or restoring international peace and security, as the UN Security Council deems necessary and at any time. Thus, while nations and collectives of nations have inherent right to self-defence, Article 24 of the UN Charter clearly assigns to the UN Security Council the â€Å"primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security†. In other words, while member nations may have the right to individual defense, it can be viably argued that under the UN Charter, the primary responsibility for â€Å"international peace and security† remains with the UN through the UN Security Council. It follows that the extent to which a nation can exercise action based on self-defence can be effectively constrained by the UN Security Council. Similarly, it can be credibly and viably be asserted that the preamble of the UN charter requires that all nations observe the rule that â€Å"armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest†. Under Article 39 of the UN Charter, however, other than the UN Security Council, the UN granted no other party the right to â€Å"determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide

OUTLINE OF INDIAN AMERICANS AND JAPANESE AMERICANS Assignment

OUTLINE OF INDIAN AMERICANS AND JAPANESE AMERICANS - Assignment Example Regardless of the essential immigration restrictions, the immigration policy presupposes that people, who are able to make an essential contribution into the US society development, have a better opportunity to immigrate. Initiative for supporting Asian American immigrants. This policy is based on the activity of social organizations. It is aimed at assisting Indians and other immigrants from Asia to adapt. Immigrants are assisted in finding apartment for rent, job in accordance with their qualification, as well as they are assisted with getting filling in the necessary forms, and getting documents As it is stated by Chung (2008). Indian Americans tend to occupy positions that require high qualification. Moreover, some organizations prefer Indians to Americans due to their feeling of high responsibility. This is especially common for medical sphere. In accordance with the statement by Kent (2007), the activity of socially oriented organizations, supporting Indian Americans is immense. The governmental support of these organizations makes the adaptation process much simpler. The key starting point of the Japanese immigration was the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The motives are mainly political, cultural, and social. The fact that the USA was among the first countries that established diplomatic relations with Japan is the key one. Educational initiatives that involve student exchange programs. These initiatives give an opportunity for the Japanese talented students to study English language, technical and other sciences in the US universities. These initiatives also offer sufficient experience for staying, and achieving success. The policy of rehabilitation of the incarcerated Japanese citizens during World War II. Its effect is closely associated with increasing the historical awareness of the Japanese Americans, as well as other US citizens. While there are still people who regard the Japanese as villains in the WWII, the policy

An op-ed piece Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

An op-ed piece - Essay Example Media reports confirm that the student loan debt has ballooned into a gigantic $870 million – even beating debts on car and credit card! Now that is surprising! And this number is projected to rise exponentially within the next few years. Therefore, it is reasonable that the Fairness for Struggling Students Act or FSSA has turned out to be the main focus of government agencies, particularly of the education department. The act would enable student loan debts to be stamped out during bankruptcy proceedings. It gained widespread support from the government and education groups seeing it as a potential solution to the economic problem. Just a couple of days ago, an article written for the Fox News reported that there is a $1.11 trillion â€Å"student loans outstanding† and $121 billion of them â€Å"are 90-plus days delinquent or in default. And this is on top of the fact that college costs has constantly risen over the past few years while the income of college graduates in industries aside from technology and finance, are tripping over (Verhage, n.p). I do not particularly understand why student forgiveness acts do help solve the economic problem when there is not much income that can be generated through taxes. The government is simply shelling out billions of money, bailing out students in an unorthodox manner by simply wiping out their student loan debts. First of all, I go for the argument that education is not really a right but is only a privilege. Nobody can legally claim that he or she is entitled to it. But, if the government stresses on private lenders the inability of a student to pay debts and encourage them to rid student loans is just the same as telling that education is a right after all. Another thing that I would like to put up is that default on loans, which is currently at $121 billion, and compelling private lenders to forgive students who could not pay their debts are acts of insult and slight to property

Non State Actors In International Security

Non State Actors In International Security 1. In the process of state transformation, such as the emergence of new political spaces beyond the territorial nation state, relocation of politics from the state to international and sub-national organizations, diffusion of political power from public authorities to semi-public and private actors, and de-legitimization of the state (crisis of the welfare state, state failures, lack of performance), the old paradigm of top-down, state-led, command control ways of steering the states has been replaced by the new forms of governance and policy instruments: network-like arrangements of public and private actors, self-regulation by business organizations, public-private and civic-private partnerships, etc have emerged (Arts, 2005, p. 2). Many scholars refer to this as a shift from government to governance which is generally referred to as global governance in the study of international relations (Ibid.,p 3). This new concept of global governance invariably includes the relevance of non -state actors (NSAs) for governing global issues. 2. With the proliferation of non-state actors in International Politics,..the traditional Westphalian nation-state is experiencing an erosion of power and sovereignty (Non-state actors, 2010). This eventually undermines the states monopoly of the use of force as well as the monopoly on raising taxes and revenues which seriously restrict the effective performance of basic functions of the sovereign nation state.  [1]  This would not only lead to additional humanitarian disasters, but create tangible security problems and governance failures at the local, regional and at the global level. 3. Non-State Actors have emerged in international relations as important actors. They are limiting the authorities being enjoyed by sovereign nation-state under state-centric international relations based on principles of Westaphalian system.  [2]  By weakening states, NSAs are establishing themselves at domestic as well as international level. 4. At present world order, international security seems to be influenced by NSAs at unprecedented level. The diverse range of non-state actors plays a unique role in the changing dominion of international security in different manner, either positively or negatively. Certainly the various types of non-state actors like Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs), Non Governmental Organizations (NGO), Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and private security firms, and Violent Non-State Actors (VNSAs) may exert their energy in different manner in order to influence the international relations of 21st century there by affecting the international security as a whole. In order to understand the degree, nature, and gravity of influence, the major NSAs have been exerting on international security, their role in international relations need to be explored. METHODOLOGY Statement of the problem 3. To understand and explore the degree, nature, and gravity of influence, the major non-state actors have been exerting on international security. Hypothesis 4. The NSAs are the important players of international relations and they influence international security to a greater extent. The degree and nature of influence exerted by various non-state actors is not same. It is basically depend on the intention and capability of the individual non-state actor. Justification of The Study 5. In post cold war era, international security seems to be influenced by NSAs at an unprecedented level. The role that the NSAs play in the international security arena has come to the notice of many only after the attacks of September 11th. The non-state actors come in various shapes and sizes ranging from Intergovernmental organization, non governmental organization, Transnational companies, terrorist and various criminal organizations etc. This diverse collection of NSAs, with different intentions and capabilities, each plays different and unique role in the international relations. This study will try to explore the role of NSAs in international relations in order to understand the degree, nature, and gravity of influence that the major NSAs have been exerting on international security. Scope 6. Every study and research will not be free from some weakness and drawbacks. The study is limited to certain boundaries for which future new researcher will try to find out the fact in more detail. The scope of the study is limited to the exploration of the influence of major NSAs on international security. NSAs, most active as well as with the strategic influence on international relations have been selected for the study. In this study, international security has been discussed from the traditional security point of view. The traditional security concept refers to the realist construct of security in which the referent object of security is the state. Research Methodology 7. Due to the nature of the subject matter the research is based on the documentary sources. Published materials in the form of books, journal article, dissertations, and reports mainly collected from electronic sources, mostly internet, have been used as secondary sources for this research. Organization of the Dissertation 8. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner: (a) Chapter I: Introduction. The subject would be introduced broadly. Similarly the necessity to carry out the research and the objective to be achieved from the study would be highlighted. This chapter also includes the limitation of the study, methods followed and the preview of the study. (b) Chapter II:Non State Actors and International Security. The detailed Concept of non-state actors and its role at present day world order will be highlighted. Brief background of non-state actors, its relevance at present day context and the diverse assortment of non-state entities will also be briefly brought out. Finally the most influential non-state actors in international relations in framing the international security will be identified for further discussion. (c) Chapter III: Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) as Non State Actors. This part would bring out various important intergovernmental organizations presently active in the world politics. Arguments would be made to qualify these intergovernmental organizations as non-state actors and at the end their contribution in international security will be brought out in detail. (d) Chapter IV: Violent Non State Actors (VNSAs) and International Security. This part will highlight the role and significance of the violent non-state actors in international security. In doing so firstly the violent non-state actors are clearly defined and out of many violent non-state actors only relevant and most influential violent non-state actors would be selected for further discussion. (e) Chapter V: International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs) and Multinational Corporation (MNCs) as International Players. In this portion the argument would be made to analyze importance of the International Nongovernmental Organizations and Multinational Corporations in driving the international relations of 21st century. Finally some conclusions will be drawn regarding the role being played by International Nongovernmental Organizations and Multinational Corporations in shaping the international security. (e) Chapter VI: Conclusion. Based on the arguments made in the various chapters a logical conclusion would be drawn in identifying the degree, nature, and gravity of influence, the major non-state actors have been exerting on international security. CHAPTER II NON STATE ACTORS AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY 9. According to Wikipedia, online encyclopedia, Non-State Actors, in international relations, are actors on the international level which are not states. (Non-state actors, 2010). In Bas Arts definition, they ..are all those actors that are not (representatives of) states, yet that operate at the international level and that are potentially relevant to international relations (2005, p. 4). Citing Josselin Wallace (2001), Joanna Szalachas defines NSA as ..an organization largely autonomous from central government funding and control, it acts between the modern states within the networks, which extends across many borders (n.d., p. 3). 10. First two of above mentioned definitions are simple and believe that only an actor, essentially not a state, active as well as influential at international level, could be a NSA. Szalacha seems to be accepting that a transnational actor focused to a state could also be a NSA. Saying largely autonomous from central government, she does not negate the possibility of some link between NSA and state. Abram Paley is concerned about the strategic role or effect of an actor to qualify itself as a NSA. After discussing several definitions, he summarizes an inclusive definition of strategic NSA with two vital components: (a) any actor that participates on the international stage or affects international interaction, but is not part of the domestic state structure, and (b) an actor-not an issue-that has the common attributes with which all actors in Common game-theoretic models are endowed-i.e. preferences, beliefs, strategies, etc. (Paley, 2008, p. 33). 11. From these different definitions of NSAs, following could be concluded: NSAs are autonomous from states or do not represent the states or governments but may have some link with certain state(s). NSAs operate at international or minimum transnational level. NSAs strategically influence international relations. 12. There are different classifications of NSAs; Table 1 shows three of them by Paley (2008, p. 29), Ataman (2003, p. 45) and Arts (2005, p. 4). Although, there are great similarities in all these three classifications, all writers mention that their classification is not the complete one. Paley says his classification is out of some common example and NSAs are not limited to them, whereas Atamans list of five NGOs is the ones which he believes are of more effective types. 13. There are varieties of actors other than state and it is difficult to find one of such actors without some sort of international or transnational connection in present context of globalization. Therefore, one may come up with more types of NSA than that is mentioned here. For example, Wikipedia in its classification of NSAs, apart from these common ones, has also included the international media, and transnational Diaspora communities (Violent non-state actors, 2010). It has grouped NSAs using violence as Violent NSA but not included IGOs. Regarding, VNSA, it is a common practice to address all NSAs which use illegal violence as their means. There is a lack of consensus on the issue of IGOs; one school of thought believes that an organization formed and collectively participated by the states cannot be termed as a NSA.  [3]  As per the definition and degree as well as gravity of their strategic influence on international relations, one can draw the conclusion that the major N SAs could be classified into four groups, namely IGOs, VNSAs, INGOs, and MNCs. Abram W Paley Muhittin Ataman Bas Arts International Terrorist Organizations. International Criminal Organizations. Nongovernmental Organizations and Grassroots Activists. International Institutions and Inter-governmental Organizations. Multi-national Corporations. Individual Actors. International Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs). Transnational or International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs). Multinational Corporations (MNCs). National Liberation Movements (NLMs). Epistemic Communities. Religious and Humanitarian Organizations. Terrorist Groups and Drug Traffickers (Narco-Terrorists). Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs). International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs). Corporate Interest Groups (CIGs) and Transnational Corporations (TNCs), Epistemic Communities (ECs). a remainder category (including terrorist networks, professional organizations, scouts, churches, etc.). Table 1: Different Classifications of NSAs 14. NSAs appeared at international level as a group of social actors since 1980s and by 1990s, those organizations have gained power and increased influence on public institutions and different states agendas (Szalacha, n.d., p. 3). But NSAs are not completely new phenomena; ..the Hanseatic League monopolized trade on the Baltic Sea between the 13th and 17th centuries, the highly powerful East India Company was founded in 1600, European haute finance was a major contributor to the relative peace of the 19th century, and the Red Cross dates to the 1860s (NIC, 2007). According to Ataman, The proliferation of non-state actors has recently led some observers of international relations to conclude that states are declining in importance and that non-state actors are gaining status and influence (2003, p. 42). Quoting Miller, Ataman further says, The growth of so many kinds of non-state actors challenges and even weakens the state-centric concept of international politics and replaces it w ith a transnational system in which relationships are more complex. These organizations changed the international environment (Ibid.). A report says, A globalization-fueled diffusion of finance and technology has enabled non-state actors to encroach upon functions traditionally performed by nation-states, facilitating their evolution into forms unheard of even a few years ago (NIC, 2007). 15. The NSAs have emerged in international relations as equal as the nation-states. It may compel states to adopt more complex transnational system but in reality, NSAs rise has greater impact in international relations. NSAs have changed the overall traditional concept of international relations, based on the principles of Westphalian system of sovereign states, as Schwartz writes, The influence of non-state actors in this globalized world is unquestionably stronger than at any point since the Westphalia system of state sovereignty was established in 1648 (n.d.). 16. International security is the most influenced aspect of the changing trend of international relations due to the rise of NSAs. Under the traditional concept of international relations, international security is maintained through two types of organizations: classical collective security organization and defensive security organization. The first type of organization is designed to promote international security through regulating the behavior of its member states, whereas defensive security organization is to protect a group of states from threats emanating from a challenging state or group of states. (Gleason Shaihutdinov, 2005, p. 274). In present context, the role of traditional collective security organizations has expanded, if not changed; those organizations have been transformed into NSAs as intergovernmental organizations. Similarly, defensive security organizations have lost their appeal in present unipolar world order; but threat of violent NSAs for them has replaced t hat of formidable rival state or group of states. 17. Non-State Actors have emerged in international relations as important actors. They are limiting the authorities being enjoyed by sovereign nation-state under state-centric international relations based on principles of Westaphalian system. By weakening states, NSAs are establishing themselves at domestic as well as international level and they influence the international security to a greater extent. The degree and nature of influence may vary from one NSA to other; it could be positive or negative as well as at large or small scale. Whatever role the major NSAs are playing in international relations, needs to be studied in order to explore their influence in international security. CHAPTER III INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AS NSAs Defining IGOs 18. The term official web page of Harvard University defines IGOs as an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest. In the absence of a treaty an IGO does not exist in the legal sense. For example, the G8 is a group of eight nations that have annual economic and political summits. IGOs that are formed by treaties are more advantageous than a mere grouping of nations because they are subject to international law and have the ability to enter into enforceable agreements among themselves or with states. (Harvard Law School 2010, Intergovernmental Organizations) 19. The main purposes of IGOs were to create a mechanism for the worlds inhabitants to work more successfully together in the areas of peace and security, and also to deal with economic and social questions. In this current era of increasing globalization and interdependence of nations, IGOs have come to play a very significant role in international political systems and global governance. 20. The number of IGOs is difficult to determine, but estimates range from 270 to more than 1000. They cover multiple issues and involve governments from every region of the world. Among the oldest IGOs are the United Nations, which replaced the League of Nations, the Universal Postal Union, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Other well-known IGOs are the European Union (EU), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the African Development Bank (ADB) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). 21. Since the creation of the UN and NATO, IGOs have become essential actors in the international security. IGOs, such as the UN and the EU, have the ability to make rules and exercise power within their member countries, their global impact continues to increase. 22. Ataman cites Miller to define IGOs as ..voluntary associations of sovereign states established to pursue many objectives for which states want to cooperate through sort of formal structure and to which states are unable to realize by themselves (Ataman, 2003, p. 43). Sovereign states establish IGOs through a treaty  [4]  and accept its authority to make decisions regarding particular problems for common benefit. In other words, the states voluntarily give up sovereignty to an IGO in order to achieve common security, cooperation for collective goods, economic rearwards and political influence. 23. In Atamans view IGOs could be classified by their scope (global and regional) or by their function (political, economic, social and environmental) (Ibid.). Wikipedia has classified them as worldwide global organizations, regional organizations, Cultural, linguistic, ethnic, religious, or historical organizations, Economic organizations, organizations for collective security or mutual defense provisions (Intergovernmental organization, 2010). Among these organizations United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies as well as some regional organizations such as European Union (EU) and collective security organization such as NATO play significant role in international security (Ibid.). Types of IGOs 24. IGOs are typically organized by their membership and by their purpose. For example, the UN is called a global organization because all countries are allowed membership. There are currently 192 member states in the UN. Some IGOs are regional and limit their membership to states within the designated regions. Other IGOs are referred to as selective organizations because they base their membership on criteria other than geography. The Organization of the Islamic Conference, for example, bases its membership on religious affiliation. OPEC, on the other hand, is comprised only of countries that produce oil. Specialized IGOs, such as NATO, limit their activities to a particular field. General IGOs have expertise on a wide variety of topics. The UN is also a general IGO as it is involved in a wide range of issues, including security, poverty reduction, health, telecommunications, international criminal justice, human rights, economic development, and environmental protection (Ibid.). Role in International Relations and Effects on International Security 25. Quoting several constructivist views, Susan Park writes. IGOs ..are norm diffusers or transmitters within the international realm; teaching states their interests (Park, 2004). They ..do this through establishing regimes, forming international agendas, constructing discourse, enforcing rules, and mediating between states (Ibid.) Park believes that these important roles ..show the significance of these organizations as the glue of the international state system, binding states together in various regimes (Ibid.). She argues that the IGOs .. act as official gate-keepers, determining which non-state actors and groups within civil society are deemed legitimate, thus de-legitimizing others, thereby shutting the latter out of the global governance structure (Ibid.). 26. IGOs are the main tools of global governance in true sense; and they are legitimate NSAs. They are responsible for collective security and defense, and they have been contributing a lot for the maintenance of international security. IGOs, formed out of common interests of the member states, maintain international security or stability by keeping member states united. On the other hand, especially collective defense oriented IGOs maintain balance with rival state or group of states. 27. UN is the key player of international relations in present context. The primary mission of UN is to maintain international peace and security.  [5]  To fulfill its mission UN has a strong mandate which it exercises through the Security Council. Since its inception, UN has continuously been trying to prevent conflicts, keep and enforce peace, and disarmament as well as proliferation of WMDs. 28. Regional organizations are also taking big steps, especially on the field of Human Security. EU is unifying entire Europe, which now is unlikely to spark other Great War. Unified Europe can maintain a balance with any other power which may emerge in future. However, regional alliances for comprehensive security are replacing the traditional military alliances; NATO is still effective. NATO, the only remaining major defense organization after the disintegration of former Soviet Union and demise of rival Warsaw Pact, is no more concerned for balance of power, but it is still significant for US and its allies for their defense. NATO is instrumental for US led War on Terror in Afghanistan. Criticism 29. The role played by IGOs at the international level is not out of controversy. There is always a question mark over their effectiveness. Some scholars argue that there problem lies on the fundamental structure and changed role of IGOs, mainly security organizations; according to Gleason Shaihutdinov, Throughout the world, the major inter-state security organizations continue to be essentially Westphalian in nature. They assume the primacy of state actors. While collective security organizations have re-focused to their objectives to confront challenges emanating from below the level of the nation-state, they have not yet reorganized their operational programs to achieve these goals. (2005, pp. 274-275) 30. IGOs like UN have been blamed as tool for powerful countries to impose their principle on the weak countries. ..the UN Security Council cannot accept any decision against the interests of the five permanent members and those of their allies, i.e., the UN Security Council decisions on the Palestinian question against Israel have often been vetoed by the United States (Ataman, 2003, pp. 44-45). The stability achieved on the cost of a states principles could not be long lasting; since it creates discontent and hatred among the people, which could be the seed of a future conflict. 31. Other IGOs, such as WTO and IMF, have been criticized for their role in globalization. Many people believe that globalization further weakens the weaker nation-states whereas strong states take maximum benefit out of it. The increasing gap between powerful states and weak states can gradually lead them to a conflict, jeopardizing international security. Overview 32. Security always puts its stakeholders under a dilemma; states need to think rationally while joining organizations or alliances. Barry Buzan portrays a picture of such dilemma in following words: Security cannot be achieved by either individuals or states acting solely on their own behalf. Some collective measures are necessary among the members of the system if each is to achieve security. Just as security cannot be achieved by individual actors, neither can it be created by concentrating all powers and responsibility at the upper levels. When such concentration happens, as we have seen in the case of individuals and the states, the collective institution becomes major source of threat to those smaller actors it was supposed to protect. (1987, p. 253) 33. Schwartzs following view on UN reflects importance of such IGOs amid their own drawbacks, While the UN is certainly not the ideal institution for international security simply because it is the sum of its parts, states the world would undoubtedly be far more insecure without it. There is no other forum in the world in which every state that wishes can participate. The implication of this should not be underestimated. Communication is essential for averting crises. And there is no other organization in the world with as broad and sweeping a mandate as the UN (Schwartz, n.d.). 34. The criticism of IGOs, exposed drawbacks and their likely consequences are not baseless accusations, but these needs be sorted out through reforms. As the key actors of global governance, IGOs play most significant role on regulating international relations and make huge positive contribution to the maintenance of international security. CHAPTER IV VIOLENT NON-STATE ACTORS AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY General 35. Even a cursory global survey suggests that violent non-state actors (VNSA s) have become a pervasive challenge to nation-states. In the 21st century, the state monopoly of the use of force is increasingly being reduced to a convenient fiction. No nation state is free of VNSAs. Relatively few of the sovereign states can truly claim a monopoly of force within their territorial borders. 36. One of the most striking features of VNSAs is their sheer variety. This suggests that there is some danger in lumping them together under a single rubric. Yet, it is clear from the preceding analysis that they do have certain things in common: they all emerge in response to inadequacies, deficiencies or shortcomings in many states and to one degree or another seek to compensate for those shortcomings. At the same time, there are important differences in motivation, purpose, power structures and the like. One of the dangers, however, is that they will increasingly form alliances with one another. There are certainly examples of linkages between organized crime and terrorist networks. Identifying VNSAs 37. VNSAs are those NSAs which use illegitimate violence as their means, they might be having some links with a state(s), and their objective could be political or economic. In Ulrich Schneckeners view VNSAs armed non-state actors willing and able to use violence for pursuing their objectives, and not integrated into formalized state institutions (Schneckener, 2006, p. 25). Following statement portrays a detail picture of VNSAs: VNSA are a distinct form of non-state actor, which distinguishes them from police forces and militaries. It is their use of collective violence that most clearly distinguishes Sendero from Starbucks, but their goals and methods also contribute to their illegitimacy. They are illegitimate vis-à  -vis the classical state system in part because the essence of being a state is having a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. By definition, VNSA resort not only to random or opportunistic aggression, but to collective violence as a tool to achieve goals. Collective violence is really an extension of collective action, which is coordinated action by the members of the group in pursuit of common ends. (Bartolomei, Casebeer, Thomas, 2004) 38. Williams says One of the most striking features of VNSA s is their sheer variety. This suggests that there is some danger in lumping them together under a single rubric (2008, p. 17). VNSAs could be found being treated separately or as a group on the study of NSAs. Table 2 shows two different groupings of VNSAs by Ulrich Schneckener (Schneckener, 2006) and Phil Wiiliams (2008). However, there is no significant difference between these two groupings; on the basis of degree of activity as well as impact at international level, only terrorist organizations, insurgents, organized criminal groups, and private security agencies or private military companies (PMCs) could be considered as major VNSA for this study. Ulrich Schneckener Phil Williams Rebels or guerrilla fighters Militias or paramilitaries Clan chiefs or big men Warlords Terrorists Criminals Mercenaries and private security companies Marauders Warlords Militias Paramilitary forces Insurgencies Terrorist organizations Criminal organizations and youth gangs Table 2: Different Classifications of VNSAs The functions VNSAs fulfill for members and supporting constituencies 39. A key part of this is the extent to which the VNSA becomes an alternative form of governance and fulfils functions normally the responsibility of the state. It is important to determine what kinds of capacity gaps and functional holes are filled by VNSAs. These can include the provision of state functions such as imposing and maintaining security and order and can extend to what might be described as paternalistic forms of social welfare. Indeed, for VNSAs filling functional spaces is often even more important than filling territorial spaces. This analytical framework is helpful in considering a wide variety of VNSAs. These include warlords, terrorist organizations, organized crime groups both domestic and transnational, transnational youth gangs, militias and insurgencies. VNSAs in International Relations as Security Threats 40. VNSAs directly challenge and affect individual nation-state or number of states through networking of violent operations. According to Fraiman, they ..pose significant challenges to the administration of states, mainly by threatening their internal monopoly on the use of force. However, at times, these groups can also present considerable external security threats to other states in the international system (2009, p. 1). The most of the modern major conflicts are betwee

My Role As The School Librarian Essay -- eduaction

Everyday I walk into my school library with the hope of influencing a student or a teacher to read a new book, use a new search strategy, or to collaborate on a unit of study. My goals for students range from getting to know them and their interests and then guiding the student to these new sources or literature. I look upon the library as a learning lab or, as some in my profession have dubbed it, the Learning Commons. Every morning I greet anywhere from 50 to 80 students who are waiting for the first bell of the day. These students are in the library because they have made a decision that this is their place; a hangout for those students who are drawn to a vibrant environment that is teeming with learning and discussion. The Library Commons at Olathe Northwest is a natural extension of the secondary library’s traditional mission in a digital world. My library offers a wide range of elements to foster student learning in new and creative ways. My goal is that this space fits the need of every student. Students who need to complete an assigned task that calls for collaboration can meet in the library and plan, discuss and complete their assignment. At the same time other students can be searching for a great book or looking online for sports scores or prom dresses. The forty computers in the library offer access for any student who walks in the door. And just in case more computers are needed, a wireless laptop can be called into service. My school library is a vibrant place that welcomes all students, there is something for everyone and as the teacher-librarian I am proud to say that I listen to my patrons and work to achieve the goal of providing a learning space that fills the needs of all who enter. The course to ac... ... time together outside of school hours. In my role as the school librarian I have access to every student and teacher in the building. I try to reach all of these people through creative and relevant library-based programs. I want the library to invite all users through its doors. I entice the I don’t like to read with great technology and computer resources. For the students who can’t get enough of the latest Manga book I am willing to stop at the bookstore and pick up the newest entry in that series. Regarding teachers, I am all about perfecting the collaborative effort to meet student learning. I have established a climate of respect. Respect for the learner, the teacher and the content material. Students genuinely like the library and my hope is that they will continue to use libraries as adults and they will be strong advocates for schools and libraries.